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ease with which information flows among various actors. See Alexandru
Grigorescu, “The Conceptualization and Measurement of Transparency,”
paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the northeastern American Po-
litical Science Association and International Studies Association–Northeast,
Albany, NY, 2000, 16–17.
6. David Brin, The Transparent Society (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1998).
7. Ann Florini and Yahya Dehqanzada, “Commercial Satellite Imagery
Comes of Age,” Issues in Science and Technology 16 (1) (1999): 45–52; Ann
Florini, “The End of Secrecy,” Foreign Policy 111 (1998): 50–63.
8. Gustaf Petren, “Access to Government-Held Information in Sweden,”
in Norman S. Marsh, ed., Public Access to Government-Held Information: A
Comparative Symposium, 35–54 (London: Stevens & Son, 1987).
9. James Madison, Letter to W. T. Barry, August 4, 1822, in Philip R.
Fendall, Letters and Other Writings of James Madison Published by Order of
Congress (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1865), III:276, available at www.jmu.edu/
madison/center/main_pages/madison_archives/quotes/great/issues.htm.
10. See the biannual surveys of the state of freedom of information laws
around the world conducted by David Banisar of Privacy International, at
http://www.privacyinternational.org/article.shtml?cmd[347]=x-347-543400.
11. This discussion draws from Shang-Jin Wei and Heather Milkiewicz,
“A Case of ‘Enronitis’? Opaque Self-Dealing and the Global Financial Ef-
fect,” Brookings Institution Policy Brief #118, 2003.
12. Shang-Jin Wei and Heather Milkiewicz, “A Global Crossing for Enro-
nitis,” Brookings Review 21 (2) (2003): 28–31.
13. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=107_cong_
reports&docid=f:hr610.107.pdf.
14. Mathew M. Aid, “Declassification in Reverse: The U.S. Intelligence
Community’s Secret Historical Document Reclassification Program,” Feb-
ruary 21, 2006, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB179/in-
dex.htm.
15. In January 2004, the heads of state in the Western Hemisphere met
in Mexico to discuss poverty, trade, democracy, and development. At the
conclusion of the Summit of the Americas, these 34 presidents proclaimed
that “Access to information held by the state . . . is an indispensable con-
dition for citizen participation and promotes effective respect for human
rights.” Declaration of Nuevo Leon, Summit of the Americas, Monterrey,
Mexico, January 2004. The declaration further recommended that all states
commit themselves to “providing the legal and regulatory framework and
introduction: the battle over transparency 15
