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COMMUNITIES AND COMMUNITY PRACTICE IN LOCAL TO GLOBAL CONTEXTS ■ 19 These principles are intended for all social work interventions, whether used in direct practice or community practice. The understanding of social justice in “Ethics in Social Work” means “challenging negative discrimination; recogniz- ing diversity; distributing resources equitably; challenging unjust policies and practices; [and] working in solidarity . . . towards an inclusive society” (IFSW/ IASSW 2004:2– 3). Such a universal statement will not have perfect agreement among all its stakeholders. However, the “Ethics in Social Work” marks an im- portant fi cation and defi nition of social justice rst step in collaborative identifi and human rights for social workers around the world; it is a point of shared understanding from which we can move forward together. The concern for the number of people in poverty, the number of children who die each day for simple lack of adequate nutrition, and the widening gap of access to wealth between the world’s richest and poorest populations has been brought into clearer focus by a variety of United Nations organizations (notably, UNDP, UNICEF, and UNIFEM). Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well- being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social ser vices, and the right to security in the event of unem- ployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to spe- cial care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall en- joy the same social protection. (UDHR 1948) In 2000, the world’s po liti cal leaders adopted the Millennium Declaration and the eight Millennium Development Goals (table 1.1; see also boxed infor- mation, UNDP Human Development Report 2003); in accepting this declara- tion and set of goals, they made promises about how to respond to this disparity of income. The formal endorsement of the Millennium Declaration was a cou- rageous step aimed at reducing poverty and advancing human development by the year 2015. According to the UNDP, many NGOs and national nonprofi ts have realigned their program goals in order to support the 2015 deadline and to work toward the Millennium Development Goals. However, more developed countries need to respond positively by providing the promised aid and debt relief; otherwise, the promises made in 2000 will be broken (UNDP 2003:1– 14; InterAction, October 18, 2007). The current economic crisis should not be used as an excuse to abandon the MDG benchmarks. The devastating and destabi- lizing forces of global poverty require a broad and consistent response. The Millennium goals give each of us an opportunity to work within our own countries to promote international collaboration and policies that will bring us

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TABLE 1.1 Eight Millennium Development Goals with 2015 Targets GOALS TARGET FOR 2015 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and Halve the proportion of people living on less than hunger. a $1 a day and those who suffer from hunger. More than a billion people still live on less than US$1 a day. 2. Achieve universal primary Ensure that all boys and girls complete primary education. education. As many as 113 million children do not attend school. 3. Promote gender equality and Eliminate gender disparities in primary and empower women. secondary education, preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015. Two- thirds of illiterates are women. 4. Reduce child mortality. Reduce by two- thirds the mortality rate among children under fi ve. Every year, nearly 11 million young children die before their fi fth birthday. 5. Improve maternal health. Reduce by three- quarters the ratio of women dying in childbirth. In the developing world, the risk of dying in childbirth is 1:48. 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS, and other diseases. the incidence of malaria, and other major diseases. 7. Ensure environmental Integrate the principles of sustainable development sustainability. into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources. Reduce by half the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water. More than one billion people lack access to safe drinking water, and more than two billion lack sanitation. 8. Develop a global partnership for Develop an open trading and fi nancial system that development. includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction— nationally and internationally. Address the least developed countries’ special needs and the special needs of landlocked and small island developing states. Deal comprehensively with developing countries’ debt problems. Develop decent and productive work for youth. In cooperation with pharmaceuti- cal companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries. In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefi ts of new technologies— especially information and communications technologies. Source: Adapted from the UNDP Human Development Report, 2006.

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18 ■ COMMUNITY PRACTICE: PURPOSE AND KNOWLEDGE BASE JUSTICE, RIGHTS, AND EMPOWERMENT IN COMMUNITY PRACTICE The eight models of community practice presented in chapter 2 and elaborated in part II of this volume are intended for use as practice reference points. The models illustrate how specifi c practice approaches might be considered as ideal types for comparative purposes (Weber, 1903– 1917/1997). Each model presents different aspects of how community workers engage with communities in a va- riety of locations, cultures, and contexts to work toward specifi c purposes. The models have a twofold comparative purpose: (1) to serve as general guides to practice in or ga niz ing, planning, sustainable development, and progressive change; and (2) to raise questions about the “why” and “how” of different action approaches. All eight models are grounded in a set of principles based on pro- moting social justice and human rights. We provide an expanded discussion of values and approaches in chapter 3; here we introduce the value base related to social justice, human rights, and empowerment. SOCIAL JUSTICE AND HUMAN RIGHTS Social justice and human rights are critical values for social work and especially for community practice (Dominelli 2007; Finn and Jacobson 2008b; Ife 2006; Reichert 2007). Embedded in these two values are the right to a decent standard of living and the elimination of abject poverty, which we will discuss in relation to the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and the mission of em- powerment in social work. The profession has both recent and historical pre ce dents on which to build a strong commitment to social justice and human rights. Social justice is one of the six core values identifi ed in the U.S. National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics (NASW 2008). At the international level in 2004, both the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) adopted “Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles” (IFSW/IASSW 2008). In addition to the interna- tional defi nition of social work noted above, this document states that human rights and social justice are intrinsic, fundamental elements of social work. Fur- thermore, the document emphasizes human rights, human dignity, and social justice as the primary principles of social work practice (IFSW/IASSW 2008:1– 2). Human rights and human dignity relate to “respecting the right to self- determination; promoting the right to participation; treating each person as a whole . . . within the family, community, societal and natural environments . . . ; [and] identifying and developing strengths . . . of individuals, groups, and com- munities and thus promote their empowerment” (IFSW/IASSW 2008:2)

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